Comparison between two methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Comparison between two methods - Essay Example The most important rule of SSADM is that a system should be developed from the top down in hierarchical method and advanced to larger levels in feature. The design should initially reflect on the foremost activity of software, and then break this activity into sub activities and decompose each sub activities until the lowest level of detail has been achieved. The lowest level components illustrates the authentic giving out that will take place. In this manner all high-level logic and deign model are carried out earlier than detailed software code is written. If structured analysis has been carried out, the structured specification document can hand out as input to the design method (Kenneth, 1999). SSADM is now utilized as an expressive practice to additional argument of information systems development. SSADM is a group of conventional, methodical and certification principles for information systems development. SSADM comprises 5 core modules (Middleton, 2000): MERISE employs a data modeling procedure which recognizes the units concerned in the system, the association among these in addition to the practical reliability limitations associated to every relationship. The theoretical procedure model, examine a development as a position of process described from the position of observation of the administration policies of the corporation. This section will present the NIMSAD analysis and differentiate this technique from the MERISE methods for better system modeling and development. Now I will present the explanation of the SSADM methods through the Normative Information Model -based Systems Analysis and Design or NIMSAD model phases (Middleton, 2000). In this phase: it is stated that computers are â€Å"sensibly malleable† in the acumen that â€Å"they can be shaped and modeled to carry out several movement that can be distinguished in states of outputs, inputs and concerning logical procedures. This can direct to approach vacuums originated through

Classification According To Maturity Biology Essay

Classification According To Maturity Biology Essay INTRODUCTION The human eye is very nearly spherical, with a diameter of approximately 24 mm (nearly one inch). It consists of three concentric layers, each with its own characteristic appearance, structure and functions. From outermost to innermost, the three layers are the sclera, which protects the eyeball; the choroid, which nourishes the eyeball; and the retina, which detects light and initiates neural messages bound for the brain. The eye is partitioned into two chambers, a small anterior chamber and a larger vitreous chamber. Thus the basic layout consists of three concentric layers, two chambers, iris, pupil and the lens (Ross and wilson, 2001). Fig.1 Anatomy of the eye C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled1.png The Lens One of very important optical element of the eye, the crystalline lens, lies right behind the iris. The lens takes its name from its resemblance to a lentil, or bean. In adults, the lens is shaped about 9 mm in diameter and 4 mm in thickness. The lens consists of three distinct parts: an elastic covering, or capsule; an epithelial layer just inside the capsule; and the lens itself. The thin, elastic capsule around the lens has two jobs. First, it moderates the flow of aqueous humor into the lens, helping the lens retain its transparency to light. Second, the elastic capsule moulds the shape of the lens varying its flatness and, thereby, the lens optical power. This variant in optical power is called accommodation. Lens grows throughout the life span; the outer, epithelial layer of lens continues to produce protein fibres that are added to the surface of the lens. Consequently, those protein fibres nearest the centre of the lens are the oldest (some were present at birth), whereas the fibres on the outside are the youngest. Between birth and 90 years of age, the lens quadruples in thickness and attains a weight of 250 mg. In the centre of the lens, the old fibres become more densely packed, producing sclerosis, or hardening, of the lens (Paterson, 1979). For good vision, the lens must be transparent and light must be able to pass through it easily, without loss or deviation. Like the cornea, this transparency depends on the material out of which the lens is made. Of all the bodys parts, the lens has the highest percentage of protein, and its protein fibres are lined up parallel to one another, maximizing the lens transparency to light. Anything that disturbs this alignment such as excess fluid inside the lens reduces its transparency. An opacity (or reduced transparency) of the lens is called a cataract. While some cataracts are minor, barely reducing the transmission of light, others undermine vision to the extent of blindness (Kyselova, 2004). Cataract Cataract is the opacification and crystalline formation of eye lens, associated with the breakdown of the eye lens micro-architecture, which interferes with the transmission of light onto the retina. Several biochemical processes for example, calcium deposition, oxidative stress, phase transition, altered epithelial metabolism, crystalline precipitation, calpain-induced proteolysis and cytoskeletal loss takes place during the development of cataract (Moghaddam, 2005). Fig.2 Normal, clear lens Fig.3 Lens clouded by cataract C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled.png Fig.4 Etiology of cataract (Jacob, 1999) C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled.png TYPES OF CATARACT A. Acquired cataract 1. Age related cataract a) Morphological classification i) Subcapsular cataract Anterior subcapsular cataract mainly associated with fibrous metaplasia of the epithelium present below the lens capsule. Posterior subcapsular cataract lies just in front of the posterior capsule and a clear vacuolated, granular or plaque-like appearance. Near vision is also most often impaired more than distant vision. ii) Nuclear cataract usually begins as an amplification of the changes most often seen with normal aging lens nucleus. It is often related with increased spherical aberration and also with an increased refractive index leading to myopia. Some elderly patients may consequently be capable to read yet again without spectacles. iii) Cortical cataract may be associated with the anterior, posterior or equatorial cortex. The opacities begin as clefts and vacuoles between lens fibres because of hydration of the cortex. Both cortical and subcapsular cataracts are white on oblique illumination and show black colouration, silhouetted against the red reflex, on retroillumination. b) Classification according to maturity i) An immature cataract means partially opaque lens. ii) A mature cataract means completely opaque lens. iii) A hypermature cataract means the leakage of water from the lens it leads to wrinkled and shrunken anterior capsule. iv) A morgagnian cataract means the total liquefication of lens cortex like hypermature cataract and it allows the lens nucleus to shrink inferiorly (Hejtmancik, 2004). 2. Presenile cataract Cataract may develop early in the following conditions, a) Diabetes mellitus Typically diabetic cataract is rare. In hyperglycemic conditions, the aqueous humor secretes high level of glucose and this excess of glucose diffuses into the lens. Aldosereductase metabolises glucose to sorbitol, which then accumulates in the lens, resulting in secondary osmotic over hydration of the lens substance. Nuclear opacities are common and tend to grow rapidly. Premature dystrophy may be seen due to decreased pliability of the lens. b) Myotonic dystrophy About 90% of patients, in third decade have fine cortical iridescent opacities, which evolve into visually disabling stellate posterior subcapsular cataract by the fifth decade. c) Atopic dertmatitis About 10% of patients with severe atopic dermatitis develop cataracts in the second to fourth decades. The opacities are often bilateral and may mature quickly. Shield like anterior subcapsular plaque which wrinkles the anterior capsule is characteristic. Posterior subcapsular opacities resembling a complicated cataract may also occur. 3. Traumatic cataract Trauma is the major risk factor for unilateral cataract in individuals. The following risk factors are involved in traumatic cataract, a) Direct penetrating injury to the lens. b) Concussion may cause an imprinting of iris colour on the anterior lens capsule (Vossius ring) as flower shaped cortical opacities (rosette cataract). c) Electric shock and lightening are rare causes. d) Ionizing radiation. e) Infrared radiation- In glassblowers, the IR rays causes exfoliation of the lens capsule which results in thickening of the superficial portion of the capsule and it further splits the deeper layer and protrudes into the anterior chamber. B. Drug induced cataract a) Steroidal drugs may induce cataract. Initially the lens opacities formed in posterior subcapsular region spreads into the anterior region. The relation between dose, duration of administration and the cataract development is unclear. It is understood that children may be more at risk to the cataractogenic effects of systemic steroids and genetic susceptibility may also be of significance. Patients who develop lens physiological changes should have their dose decreased to a minimum, reliable with control of the underlying disease, and if feasible be considered for alternate drug therapy. Premature opacities may regress if therapy is discontinued, alternatively progression may occur despite withdrawn and warrant surgical intervention. b) Chlorpromazine may cause the deposit of innocuous fine, stellate, yellowish brown granules on the anterior lens capsule within the papillary area. The deposition of granular material may accumulate on the corneal endothelium and deep stroma. Both lenticular and corneal deposits are dose -related and irreversible. In very high doses (>2400 mg daily), this drug may cause retinotoxicity. c) Lens opacities may occur due to the irregular use of Busulphan (Myleran) for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukaemia. d) Amiodarone, used in the treatment of cardiac arrhythmias, causes visually inconsequential anterior subcapsular lens deposits in about 50% of patients on moderate to high doses. e) Gold used in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, causes harmless anterior capsular deposits in about 50% of patients on treatment for more than 3 years. f) Allopurinol, used in the treatment of hyperuricaemia and chronic gout, increases the risk of cataract formation in elderly patients, if the cumulative does exceeds 400 g or duration of administration exceeds 3 years. C. Secondary cataract A secondary (complicated) cataract grows as a result of some other primary ocular diseases. i. Chronic anterior uveitis is the main cause of secondary cataract. The earliest finding is a polychromatic lustre at the posterior pole of the lens which may not progress if the uveitis is arrested. If the inflammation persists, posterior and anterior opacities developed may progress to maturity. ii. Acute congestive angle closure glaucoma may cause small grey white anterior, subcapsular or capsular opacities within the papillary area. a. Myopia (Pathological) is linked with posterior subcapsular lens opacities and early-onset nuclear sclerosis, which may ironically increase the myopic refractive error. Simple myopia, however, is not associated with such cataract formation. b. Hereditary dystrophies such as retinitis pigmentosa, gyrate atrophy, leper congenital amaurosis and stickler syndrome may be associated with posterior subcapsular lens opacities. Cataract surgery may occasionally improve visual acuity even in the presence of severe retinal changes (Kanski et al., 2003). Free radicals involved in cataractogenesis Free radicals may be formed either by the reduction of molecules by electron transfer or by the haemolytic cleavage of covalent bond. Both these reactions may be enzymatic or non-enzymatic. Due to the presence of an odd unpaired electron in its outermost orbital, these free radicals are unstable and readily react with neighbourhood molecules and extract electrons from them, converting the attacked molecule into a few radical, which in turn attacks another molecule generating more free radicals and so on. This enables free radicals to induce chain reactions that may be thousands of events long. A free radical reaction is terminated by reaction between two free radicals or neutralization by antioxidants (Uday et al., 1999). Fig.5 Pathways of ROS formation C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled 3.png Generation of free radicals Biological free radicals include reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, reactive sulphur species, free radicals obtained form xenobiotics. a) Superoxide anion radical (O2.-) It is generated from NADPH oxidase and from mitochondria. i) NADPH oxidase is present in the lysosomal cell membranes. It steals electron from O2 resulting in the formation superoxide anion radical (O ·2-). It is converted to hydrogen peroxide and is a spontaneous reaction which is known as respiratory burst. This hydrogen peroxide may react with the chlorine in the presence of myeloperoxidase to form hypochlorous acid or it may produce hydroxyl radicals, by the Fenton reaction which uses the metal ion Fe3+. ii) From Mitochondria: Ubiquionone, which is a terminal acceptor of electron, is converted to semiquinone (free radical). By reacting with O2, it forms (O ·2-) super oxide radical with H2O2, it produce hydroxyl radical ion. b) Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 SOD It is formed by the dismutation of superoxide by the enzyme superoxide dismutase. O · 2 + O ·2 Hydrogen peroxide is generated from i) Aminoacid oxidases: Flavin is a co-enzyme required for the oxidative deamination of amino acid. The reduced flavin attacks molecular oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide. ii) Xanthine oxidase: Xanthine oxidase catalyses the conversion of hypoxanthine to xanthine and hydrogen peroxide is released from molecular oxygen. iii) Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes is the site of  Ã‚ ¢-oxidation of fatty acids.  Ã‚ ¢- Oxidation of the fatty acids is catalysed by acetyl co-enzyme-A dehydrogenase. During this process, a co-enzyme called FAD which donates two electrons gets reduced to FADH2. Again it is converted to FAD. During that process it gives out O2 and H2O (Kovaceva et al., 2007). c) Hydroperoxyl radical They are highly lipophillic and capable of initiating lipid peroxidation. Lipid peroxidation Lipid peroxidation is a self- perpetuating common process and involves the conversion of lipid components from cell organelles into lipid peroxides resulting in the formation of a pigment known as lipofuscin. Lysosomic reactive oxygen species are formed as a result of complex oxidative chain reactions in mitochondria during energy production. H2O2 formed in smaller amounts by mitochondria pass through walls of lysosome and react with Fe (II) in a reaction known as Fenton reaction to form potent hydroxyl radicals which cause lipid peroxidation (Halliwell, 2001). Malondialdehyde is the major reactive aldehyde resulting from the peroxidation of biological membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). MDA, a secondary product of LPO, is used as an indicator of tissue damage by a series of chain reactions. MDA is a by-product of prostaglandin biosynthesis. It reacts with thiobarbituric acid and produces a red-coloured product. MDA is a mutagenic and genotoxic agent that may contribute to d evelopment of human cancer. Ca2+ ATPase The Ca2+ ATPase is a transport protein in the cells that serves to eliminate calcium (Ca2+) from the cell. It is essential for maintaining the amount of Ca2+ within the cells. Based upon the electrochemical gradient calcium ion enter into the cells through the trans membrane. This process is important for the cell signalling by which it lowers calcium level. Thus it is necessary for the cell to utilize ion pumps to remove the Ca2+. The Ca2+ ATPase is expressed in a variety of tissues, together with the brain (Hightower et al., 1982). IN VIVO MODELS IN CATARACT (Gupta, 2004) 1. Sugar cataract i) Galactose induced cataract The changes associated with galactose cataractogenesis include the initial reduction of galactose into dulcitol through intervention of aldose reductase with NADPH as a co-factor. Accumulation of dulcitol in the lens, (since it is not metabolized) creates cellular hypertonicity associated with and/or followed by a cascade of events, which includes an influx of water, swelling of the lens fibres, epithelial cell edema, damage of plasma membrane, compromise of cellular permeability, a drop in myinositol level, a reduction in Na+ K+ ATPase activity an influx of Na+ and Cl- and an efflux of K+ and the loss of glutathione and aminoacids. These are the morphological, biochemical, enzymatic and molecular alterations in the lens associated with galactose cataracts. ii) Alloxan induced cataract Alloxan is a cyclic urea analog which is highly reactive molecule that is readily reduced to dialuric acid, which is then auto oxidized back to alloxan resulting in the formation of hydroxyl radical, O2.-, including H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide). However, the other mechanism reveals the ability of alloxan to react with protein sulfhydryl groups on hexokinase, a signal recognition enzyme in the pancreatic ÃŽ ²-cells that couples changes in the blood glucose concentration to the rate of insulin secretion. By this mechanism, inhibition of glucokinase and other SH containing membrane proteins on the ÃŽ ²-cells would eventually result in cell necrosis within minutes. iii) Streptozocin induced cataract Diabetes related cataractogenic changes are seen in the animals injected with streptozocin. This streptozocin initiates cytotoxic action in pancreatic ÃŽ ² cells because sreptozocin contain glucose molecule and highly reactive nitrosourea side chain. It binds to the membrane receptor to generate structural damage. At the intracellular level three major phenomena are responsible for ÃŽ ² cell death, i) Methylation ii) Free radical production iii) Formation of Nitric oxide (NO). The damage caused to ÃŽ ² cells alters the sugar metabolism leading to diabetes. 2. Selenite induced cataract Selenite cataract resembles human cataract in many ways such as insoluble protein, vesicle formation, increased calcium, reduced glutathione (GSH) and decreased water-soluble proteins. However, selenite cataract shows no high molecular weight protein aggregation or increased disulfide formation and is dominated by rapid calpain-induced proteolytic precipitation, while senile cataracts may be produced by prolonged oxidative stress. 3. Naphthalene induced cataract Naphthalene is oxidized in the liver initially to an epoxide and then it converted into naphthalene dihydrodiol. This stable component is converted enzymatically into dihydroxynaphthalene to reaching the eye. Being unstable at physiological pH, 1, 2- dihydroxynaphthalene and spontaneously autooxidises to 1, 2- naphthoquinone and H2O2 . It alkylates proteins, glutathione and aminoacids and generates free radicals. 4. Glucocorticoid induced cataract Glucocorticoid cataract results in the formation of steroid- adduct protein, induction of transglutaminase and reduction of ATPase activity may lead to cataract. Steroid cataracts are produced by the activities of glucocorthicoids and progressed by way of production of oxidative stress similar to other types of cataract. 5. L- Buthionine S, R- Sulfoximine (BSO) induced cataract Glutathione is present in mammalian lens in high concentrations and is involved in the protection of lens against oxidation. In most of the cataracts the decrease in its level is observed. 6. Smoke induced cataract Cigarette smoke contains trace and heavy metals. The increased metal contents in lens cause lens damage by the mechanism of oxidative stress-forming oxygen radicals, via metal catalyzed Fenton Reaction. In other words cigarette smoke is associated with the accumulation of iron and calcium. 7. UV radiation induced cataract Epidemiological studies have exposed a link between exposure to UV radiation in sunlight and development of cataract. Experimental studies confirm that ultraviolet (UV) radiation induces cataract. There is, however, a lack of data on the age dependence in experimental UV radiation-induced cataract. 8. Microwave induced cataract Microwave radiation has been reported to produce posterior subcapsular and cortical cataracts in rabbits and dogs within a short span of time. 9. Transforming Growth Factor ÃŽ ² (TNFB) induced cataract TGFB is induced by injecting approximately 60 ng TGFB into the vitreous. TGFB induce lens epithelial cells to undergo molecular modify and abnormal morphologic that mimic the changes observed in human posterior subcapsular and cortical cataract (Gupta, 2004). IN VITRO MODELS IN CATARACT (Gupta, 2004) Induction of cataract in isolated animal lenses maintained in organ culture has become a convenient, quick and appropriate method for testing the anticataract efficacy of an agent. Opacification of lens is induced by generating oxidative stress/ hyperglycemic/ hypergalactosemic conditions around the lens by supplementing the culture medium with a variety of exogenous substances. 1. Oxidative stress induced cataract Oxidative mechanisms play an important role in many biological phenomena including cataract formation. Formation of the superoxide radical in the aqueous humor, lens and its derivatization to other potent oxidants may be responsible for initiating various toxic biochemical reactions leading to the progress of cataract. In vitro such cataracts are induced by agents like selenium, H2O2, photosensitizers and enzyme xanthine oxidase. 2. Selenite induced cataract In vitro cataract is produced by supplementing the tissue culture medium with 25 to 100 mM sodium selenite in which freshly enucleated transparent rat lenses are incubated at 370C. This causes membrane damage and faint cortical opacities within 24 h. 3. Photochemically induced cataract Riboflavin, a photosensitizer, is supplemented in the culture medium to induce cataract in cultured lenses. Micro quantities (4-200  Ã‚ ­M) of riboflavin lead to severe physiological damage and opacification within 24 h after exposure to light. The initial membrane damage is evidenced by a disturbed cation ratio between lens water and the medium of incubation. Riboflavin on getting photosensitized generates free radicals in a sequence of reactions. Lenses are maintained in organ culture for 24 to 72 h. The lenses are divided into four groups and incubated in the dark and light both in presence and absence of riboflavin. The lenses are exposed to light with two 15-w daylight fluorescent lamp placed at 8 inches above the cluster plate. The culture medium is replaced every 24 h. Riboflavin shows no effect on the lens in the absence of light, and light without riboflavin has no significant effect. opacification starts in the equatorial zone and gradually extends towards the centre of the lens. 4. Enzymatically induced cataract Supplementation of culture medium with 1 mM xanthine and 0.1 unit xanthine oxidase, which act as substrate and enzyme respectively, leads to generation of superoxide radical. The lenses suffer severe oxidative damage and turn opaque within 24 h when incubated in culture medium at 370C. 5. Hydrogen peroxide induced cataract Incubation of lenses in medium containing 50-500  Ã‚ ­M H2O2 and it produce cataract. Opacification starts in the equatorial region within 24 h. The entire superficial cortex becomes opaque by 96 h. Due to the high instability of H2O2, the medium is changed every 2 h during the first eight hours. 6. Sugar induced cataract Transparent and undamaged lenses are incubated in a basis culture medium with fetal calf serum for 24 to 48 h. In the control group the medium is supplemented with glucose (30 mM), lenses develop opacity in the subcapsular region on day 1 and in the central region on day 2. Biochemical analyses reveal raised polyol, malondialdehyde levels and water content, and decreased glutathione levels in these lenses. 7. Steroid induced cataract Steroid-induced experimental cataract is produced in vitro by incubating the transparent lenses in the medium containing methyl prednisolone (1.5 mg/ml). The test agent and methyl prednisolone added alone and together to the medium form drug control, control and treated groups respectively. Early cataract around the equator is produced within 24 h of incubation. Incubation period may be extended to 48 h for dense opacity. Morphological changes and modulation in biochemical parameters between the groups may show the potential of the anticataract agent. 8. Naphthalene induced cataract TC-199 medium is used for the preincubation of lens. Stock solution of napthalene dihydrodiol is prepared in 20% ethanol at 2.5-10-3 M concentration. The stock solution is diluted 1:100 to obtain the final concentration of 25.5 -10-5 M. The final osmolarity of the solution is 295-300 m Osmol. Rat lenses are incubated in TC-199 medium containing napthalene metabolite solution. Medium is renewed daily till 72 h. Lenses remain clear during the initial 24 h but from shell-like opacity around the nucleus by 48 h. Opacification becomes more peripheral and widespread after 72 h. At 48 h, under such conditions of incubation, development of opacity mimics the in vivo napthalene cataract. Naphthalene is oxidized in the liver first to an epoxide and then is altered into naphthalene dihydrodiol. This stable component on reaching the eye gets converted enzymatically to dihydroxynaphthalene. Being unstable at physiological pH, 1,2 dihydroxynapthalene sponaneously auto oxidises to 1,2 naphthoquinon e and H2O2. It alkylates proteins glutathione and amino acids and generates free radicals. There is a loss of protein thiol in this reaction and the products are less easily digestible by pancreatin than normal lens protein (Rees and Pirie, 1967). 9. Ca2+ induced cataract In this model, the control group contains the lenses incubated in the medium enriched with 20 mM Ca2+ or 1x 10-2 mM A23187 calcium ionopore. The treatment group lenses are cultured in the calcium and the test drug-containing medium. Incubation period can range from 24-72 h (Gupta, 2004). Fig.6 Mechanism of action of glucose-induced cataract C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled 7.png Under physiological conditions, glucose is metabolized through the glycolytic pathway. An excess amount of glucose is converted to sorbitol by enzyme aldose reductase via polyol pathway. The glucose conversion into sorbitol by utilizing NADPH results in the reduction of NADPH/NADP+. Moreover, sorbitol undergoes oxidation to fructose by using sorbitol dehydrogenase (SD). Sorbitol does not easily cross cell membrane. Intra lenticular accumulation of sorbitol, leads to lens damage (Kyselova, 2004). Fig.7 Biomorphological changes during cataract formation C:UsersDHINESHDesktopUntitled 66.png As, the lens starts to swell in response to the hyper osmotic effects of polyol accumulation, membrane permeability changes resulting in an increase in lenticular sodium and decrease in the levels of lenticular potassium, reduced glutathione, ATP and free amino acids. The overall antioxidant status of the lens decreases because of depletion of GSH (Kyselova, 2004). Mechanism of action of calcium-induced cataract Fig.8 Calcium transport pathway Increased levels of lenticular calcium activate calcium dependent proteases. The activated proteases hydrolyze cytoskeletal proteins and lens crystalline. Crystalline cleavage would result from lower molecular weight peptides that could, in turn, aggregate to form higher molecular weight proteins (Wang et al., 1996). Various methods for the prevention of cataract The development of newer drugs for treatment of cataract mainly aims, interacting at the level of changed lens metabolism and lens pathophysiology. The in vitro, in vivo studies are used to identify the anti cataract agents. This epidemiological studies may be widely classified in the following categories (Gupta et al., 1997). Aldose reductase inhibitors Agents acting on glutathione Nonsteroidal anti -inflammatory drugs Vitamins, minerals and antioxidants Miscellaneous agents. 1) Aldose Reductase Inhibitors These drugs are aimed to prevent the metabolic dysfunctions of diabeties by polyol pathways. Aldose reductase inhibitors prevents the accumulation of sorbital within the lens would have an osmotic effect bringing in water and causing swelling and opacification. Sorbinil a spirohydantoin became the most powerful sorbitol lowering agent. Sorbinil prevents increased fluorescence and protein aggregation and it also acts as an antioxidant. 2) Non Steroidal Anti inflammatory Drugs The NSAIDS broadly studied are paracetamol, aspirin, Ibuprofen, sulindac, naproxen, and bendazec. The NSAIDS provide adequate productive effect to lens protein through various steps like acylation, carbamylation and inhibition of glycocylation. Some of them are also reported to inhibit lens AR to varying extent. NSAIDS contains antioxidant properties also. Most of the studies on the evaluation of anticataract potential of drugs have been conducted by feeding the drugs by oral route. 3) Agents which act on glutathione Glutathione is a tripeptide thiol known to control calcium inflex and protect lens protein from various agents like glucose and galactose. With advancing of age there is a considerable decrease in the concentration of glutathione and the decrease more prominent in lens with cataract. 4) Vitamins, minerals and antioxidants If oxidation in lens leads to cataract formation, then is feasible to prevent it by the use of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and perhaps ÃŽ ²-carotene. The potential role of vitamins and antioxidants in preventing various diseases is well documented there are reports suggesting beneficial effect of vitamins like C and E in preventing cataract. Beta -carotene has also been demonstrated to protect lens damage by hematoporphysin. Ascorbate protects rubidium uptake against free radical damage and prevents light induced protein cross linking. Protective effect of vitamin C has been also reported in various in vitro studies. Vitamin E has been found to delay cataractogenesis in diabetic rats and in Emory mouse. Vitamins C and E,  Ã‚ ¢- Carotene and other anticataract agents probably act via a common mechanism of their scavenging properties of free radicals (Gupta et al., 1997b). Antioxidant enzymes 1) Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) SODs are a family of metalloenzymes that transfer superoxide in to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and represents the first line of defence against oxygen toxicity. 2O2- + 2H → H2O2 + O2 Three isoforms of SOD have been found. The first is mainly found in the cytoplasm of cells and it containing Cu and Zn at its active site (Cu/Zn SOD-1), the second containing Mn at its active site is located in mitochondria (Mn SOD-2) and the third (Cu/Zn SOD-3) is present in the extracellular fluid like plasma. SOD is a stress protein which is synthesized mostly in response to oxidative stress. It is found that little amount of Cu, Zn and Mn metals are crucial for maintaining the antioxidant activity of SOD (Halliwell, 1994; Ray and Husain, 2002). 2) Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) GPx is one of the most important enzymes responsible for the degradation of organic peroxides and hydrogen peroxide in the brain. GPx catalyse the oxidation of GSH to GSSG at the expense of H2O2. There are two isoforms have been identified, selenium-dependent which is highly active towards H2O2 and organic hydroperoxides and selenium independent GPx. GPx activity has been reduced in selenium deficiency (Muller et al., 1984; Son et al., 2007). 3) Catalase (CAT) It is a heme-containing protein present in most cells. 2H2O2+ 2H2O → O2 Catalase is 104 times faster than GPx. It is having four protein subunits, each containing a heme Fe (III)-protoporphyrin group bound to its active site. GPx and CAT were found to be important in the inactivation of many environmental mutagens (Ray and Husain, 2002). 4) Glutathione (GSH) GSH has major intracellular antioxidant molecule and it is a tripeptide synthesised by enzymatic reaction involving two molecules of ATP from aminoacids like glutamate, glycine and cysteine. It plays a very crucial role in detoxification of peroxides and electrophilic toxins, mainly by acting as a substrate for GSH transferase and GSH peroxidase. It was shown that weakening of GSH enhances cerebral ischemic injury in rats (Mizui et al., 1992; Son et al., 2007).

Essay --

Country Details Republic of India is situated in South Asia; it is at the 7th position in world by the area. The population as per 2011 census is approx. 1.2 billion, which is the 2nd largest economy in the world after the China in terms of population. India is the democracy country. From the oldest era India is the famous for its civilization and its culture. There are so many different types of people are lived together. The main are Hindu, Muslim, Shikh, Christian. The currency of India is Indian Rupee i.e. INR. As per 2013, India is the third largest economy by purchasing power parity and the 11th largest by nominal gross domestic product. The per capita income of India is approx. $1414 which is estimated in 2013. There are total 28 states and 7 union territories in India. States has its different parliament while the union territory is directly under the President of India. All the states have its divided in different districts also. The official language of India is Hindi and English, because there are more than 500 languages are there in India. The capital of India is Delhi. Mr. Pranab Mukherjee is the 13th and current President of India. The national anthem of India is Jana Gana Mana and the Motto is Satyameva Jayate. There are so many industries in India. India is a developing country. The GDP of the country is 6.1% as per 2011-12. The India is the fastest growing economy in the world. There are 486.6 million workers in the country, so as per labor force India is the second largest country in the world as per 2011. India has the world’s third largest military which is commanded by the President of India. It includes the Indian Army, Indian Navy and Indian Air Force. The National Stock of Exchange and the Bomba... ...13. India is the most attractive nation in the world in terms of investment. In 2013-14 the India is expected fiscal deficit at 3.4% from the previous year 2012-13. India is also good in export of the product. It has done export worth US$ 303 billion in FY 2012-13. The expected growth in export is about US$ 325 billion in this FY. India's industrial economy is gathering momentum on the back of improved output of eight core sector industries – coal, crude oil, refining, steel, cement, natural gas, fertilizers and electricity – which, at 8 per cent in September 2013, rose at its fastest pace in a year. The US$ 1.2 trillion investment planned in the infrastructure sector will go a long way in boosting export performance of Indian companies and the Indian growth story, according to Mr. Anand Sharma, Union Minister for Commerce and Industry, Government of India. â€Æ'

The Relationship Between An Organization, Its Environment And Affiliation To Globalization In Today’s Modern Economy.

This essay is based on organisation ‘s internal and external environment in today ‘s modern economic system. It besides discusses the drivers of globalisation and effects of globalisation on organisation ‘s environment. First, it is of import to understand the definition of globalisation as there are many definitions. Second, the drivers of globalisation are discussed in this essay including the history, purpose and function of World Trade Organization. Further, the relationship between organisation ‘s internal and external environment in planetary market is analyzed. It besides highlights the alterations that organisations have to confront when traveling planetary. However, it is really ambitious as an organisation can command their internal environment but can non command the external environment. An early description of globalisation was penned by the American entrepreneur-turned-minister Charles Taze Russell who coined the term & A ; lsquo ; Corporate Giants ‘ in 1897. However, it was non until the sixtiess that the term began to be widely used by economic experts and other societal scientists. It had achieved widespread usage in the mainstream imperativeness by the ulterior half of the 1980s. Since its origin, the construct of globalisation has inspired legion viing definitions and readings. Globalization refers to the displacement towards a more incorporate and mutualist universe economic system. Globalization has several different aspects including the globalisation of markets and globalisation of merchandises ( Hill, 2004 ) .Globalization has led to progressively incorporate markets across the universe, altering the competitory environment in which houses operate. In the face of international competition in domestic and foreign markets, the least productive houses may be forced into bankruptcy while the most productive 1s will take advantage of new concern chances in foreign markets ( IMF ) . Globalization attracts increasing involvement and importance in modern-day universe personal businesss. It besides inspires passionate protagonists and critic ( BBC ) . Globalization is the procedure of increasing the connectivity and mutuality of the universe ‘s markets and concerns. This procedure has speeded up dramatically in the last two decennaries as technological progresss make it easier for people to go, pass on, and do concern internationally. In general, as economic systems become more affiliated to other economic systems, they have increased chance but besides increased competition. Therefore, as globalisation becomes a more and more common characteristic of universe economic sciences, powerful pro-globalization and anti-globalization anterooms have arisen. The pro-globalization anteroom argues that globalisation brings approximately mu ch increased chances for about everyone, and increased competition is a good thing since it makes agents of production more efficient ( investorwords, 2009 ) . The two most outstanding pro-globalization organisations are the World Trade Organization and the World Economic Forum. The World Trade Organization is a pan-governmental entity ( which presently has 144 members ) that was set up to explicate a set of regulations to regulate planetary trade and capital flows through the procedure of member consensus, and to oversee their member states to guarantee that the regulations are being followed. The World Economic Forum, a private foundation, does non hold decision-making power but enjoys a great trade of importance since it has been effectual as a powerful networking forum for many of the universe ‘s concern, authorities and not-profit leaders. The anti-globalization group argues that certain groups of people who are deprived in footings of resources are non presently capable of working within the increased competitory force per unit area that will be brought about by leting their economic systems to be more affiliated to the remainde r of the universe. Important anti-globalization organisations include environmental groups like Friends of the Earth and Greenpeace ; international assistance organisations like Oxfam ; 3rd universe authorities organisations like the G77 ; concern organisations and trade brotherhoods whose fight is threatened by globalisation like the U.S. fabrics and European farm anteroom, every bit good as the Australian and U.S. trade brotherhood motions. There are four chief elements and drivers of globalisation: globalisation of markets, globalisation of production, engineering invention and falling of barriers to merchandise and investing which is analyzed in more depth including the function and purpose of WTO. Globalization of markets refers to the meeting of national markets into one immense planetary market place. Now selling internationally is easier due to falling barriers to cross-border trade. A company does n't hold to be the size of these transnational giants to ease and profit from the globalisation of markets. It is of import to offer a standard merchandise to the worldwide. But really important differences still exist between national markets like consumer gustatory sensations, penchants, legal ordinances, cultural systems. These differences require that marketing schemes in order to fit the conditions in a state. Globalization of production refers to the sourcing of goods and services from locations around the universe to take advantage of national differences in the cost and quality of factors of production. The thought is to vie more efficaciously offering a merchandise with good quality and low cost. For illustration, Nike is considerate one of the taking sellers of athletic places and dress on the universe. The company has some abroad mills where has achieved a ace production with low cost. Unfortunately Nike has been a mark of protest and relentless accusals that its merchandises are made in sweatshops with hapless working conditions. The company has signaled a committedness to bettering working conditions, but in malice of the fact, the onslaughts continue. Technological alterations have achieved progresss in communicating, information processing, and transit engineering, including the Internet and the World Wide Web ( World Wide Web ) . The most of import invention has been development in the microprocessors after that planetary communications have been revolutionized by developments in orbiter, optical fibre, and radio engineerings, and now the Internet and the World Wide Web. The rapid growing of the cyberspace and the associated World Wide Web is the latest look of this development. Besides, inventions have occurred in the field of the transit engineering. The development of commercial jet aircraft has reduced the clip needed to acquire from one location to another. Now New York is closer to Tokyo than of all time. Another illustration of technological alteration would be web sites such as ebay.com where any single can sell any point to anyone in the universe ; it is basically the biggest garage sale of all time. A 3rd illustration of technological alteration would be production ; in the 1900s people were doing merchandises mostly by manus. Today, machines can flog out a twelve jumpers in an hr and do them higher quality. This manner the planetary market can demand more merchandises at a higher quality. The falling of barriers to international trade enables houses to see the universe as their market. The lowering of barrier to merchandise and investings besides allows houses to establish production at the optimum location for that activity. Therefore, a house might plan a merchandise in one state, produce a constituent parts in two other states, assemble the merchandise in another state and so export the finished merchandise around the universe. The lowering of trade barriers has facilitated the globalisation of production. The grounds besides suggests that foreign direct investing is playing an increasing function in the planetary economic system. For illustration, Panama is now allowed to merchandise Pharmaceuticals, nutrients, and school supplies without enduring a duty. Besides, any other import is capable to merely a 5 % duty as opposed to the old 8 % . Decreasing and lowering of the trade and investing hurdlings internationally is one of the of import grounds of globalisation. After the constitution of the universe trade organisation in which many states participated due to the free trade understandings in the states around the universe. After the constitution of GATT ( General Agreement of Tariff and Trade ) it is the trade understanding between the states that are willing to transport the free trade around the universe. The purpose of these duties was to protect the local industries of those states. But now the bookmans of prosperity have though that the universe would be become more peaceable and good topographic point to populate in when all the states and their representatives coordinate with each other. The benefit of this is to the states who do non hold much beginning to use their resources so that they can pull the big foreign investing in their states. The WTO provides a forum for negociating understandings aimed at cut downing obstructions to international trade and guaranting a flat playing field for all, therefore lending to economic growing and development. The WTO besides provides a legal and institutional model for the execution and monitoring of these understandings, every bit good as for settling differences originating from their reading and application. The current organic structure of trade understandings consisting the WTO consists of 16 different many-sided understandings ( to which all WTO members are parties ) and two different plurilateral understandings ( to which merely some WTO members are parties ) . Over the past 60 old ages, the WTO, which was established in 1995, and its predecessor organisation the GATT have helped to make a strong and comfortable international trading system, thereby lending to unprecedented planetary economic growing. The WTO presently has 153 members, of which 117 are developing states or separate imposts districts. WTO activities are supported by a Secretariat of some 700 staff, led by the WTO Director-General. The Secretariat is located in Geneva, Switzerland, and has an one-year budget of about CHF 200 million ( $ 180 million, ˆ130 million ) . The three functionary linguistic communications of the WTO are English, French and Spanish. Decisions in the WTO are by and large taken by consensus of the full rank. The highest institutional organic structure is the Ministerial Conference, which meets approximately every two old ages. A General Council conducts the organisation ‘s concern in the intervals between Ministerial Conferences. Both of these organic structures comprise all members. Specialized subordinate organic structures ( Councils, Committees, Sub-committees ) , besides consisting all members, administer and supervise the execution by members of the assorted WTO understandings.More specifically, the WTO ‘s chief activities are:negociating the decrease or riddance of obstructions to merchandise ( import duties, other barriers to merchandise ) and holding on regulations regulating the behavior of international trade ( e.g. antidumping, subsidies, merchandise criterions, etc. )administrating and supervising the application of the WTO ‘s agreed regulations for trade in goods, trade in services, and trade-related rational belongings rightsmonitoring and reexamining the trade policies of our members, every bit good as guaranting transparence of regional and bilateral trade understandingssettling differences among our members sing the reading and application of the understandingsedifice capacity of developing state authorities functionaries in international trade affairshelping the procedure of accession of some 30 states who are non yet members of the organisationcarry oning economic research and collection and circulating trade informations in support of the WTO ‘s other chief activitiesexplicating to and educating the populace about the WTO, its mission and its activities.The WTO ‘s initiation and guiding rules remain the chase of unfastened boundary lines, the warrant of most-favoured-nation rule and non-discriminatory intervention by and among members, and a committedness to transparence in the behavior of its activities. The gap of national markets to inter national trade, with justifiable exclusions or with equal flexiblenesss, will promote and lend to sustainable development, raise people ‘s public assistance, cut down poorness, and surrogate peace and stableness. At the same clip, such market gap must be accompanied by sound domestic and international policies that contribute to economic growing and development harmonizing to each member ‘s demands and aspirations. ( WTO, 2009 ) An organisation ‘s internal environment is composed of the elements within the organisation, including current employees, direction, and particularly corporate civilization, which defines employee behaviour. Besides organisation ‘s resources, its capablenesss and competences make up the internal environment of the organisation. The internal environment plays a important function in the strategic direction procedure of the organisation. ( Hill, 2004 ) Although some elements affect the organisation as a whole, others affect merely the director. A director ‘s philosophical or leading manner straight impacts employees. Traditional directors give expressed instructions to employees, while progressive directors empower employees to do many of their ain determinations. Changes in doctrine and/or leading manner are under the control of the director. To analyse the internal and external environment of an organisation SWOT analysis is carried out to place strengths, failings, chances and menaces. The Internal Analysis of strengths and weaknesses focal points on internal factors that give an organisation certain advantages and disadvantages in run intoing the demands of its mark market. Strengths refer to core competences that give the house an advantage in run intoing the demands of its mark markets. Any analysis of company strengths should be market oriented/customer focused because strengths are merely meaningful when they assist t he house in run intoing client demands. Weaknesses refer to any restrictions a company faces in developing or implementing a scheme. Failings should besides be examined from a client position because clients frequently perceive failings that a company can non see. The external environment in which an organisation operates nowadayss both menaces and chances. Growth or diminution in international trade, national protectionism and regional trading axis are some illustrations of the political and economic environment, which have considerable impact on the selling of the maritime industry. There are different ways of sorting the types of external environment that normally merely reflect the penchants of different writers, but there are some nucleus types which are ever identified. Your Kotler et Al. ( 2004 ) text provides a comprehensive categorization of the external environments, which it refers to as the macro-environment, as listed below: demographic environment, economic environment, natural environment, technological environment, political environment, cultural environment, technological environment, administrative/legal environment.Administrative/Legal EnvironmentThe administrative and legal environment in a state provides a model within which an organisation operates. In some states this environment is really restrictive and has important impact on all facets of the organisation ; in other states the administrative/legal context is more permissive. Understanding the administrative/legal environment is indispensable to finding if organisational alteration can take topographic point. The administrative context within which the organisation operates may be shaped by a alone combination of forces, including international, governmental, nongovernmental poli cy, legislative, regulative, and legal models. An organisation is affected by the policy or regulative context that gave rise to it. This includes specific Torahs and ordinances that support or inhibit the establishment ‘s development.Technology EnvironmentBoth the types and the degree of engineering in the society give penetration into understanding an establishment. Institutions covering with Western paradigms are dependent on the province of national substructure, e.g. power, H2O, conveyance ; those which concentrate on autochthonal research paradigms may hold wholly different dependences. Therefore, it is of import to understand the degree of relevant engineering in the institutional context and whether such engineering is defined by computing machine literacy or by extremely developed autochthonal methods of verbal and gestural communicating. It might besides be helpful for an appraisal to include a consideration of the procedure by which new engineering comes into usage, both to understand how hard it is to get needed research engineerings and to develop an grasp for the society ‘s willingness to encompass both new cognition and alteration.Political EnvironmentThe economic system and legal system of a state are shaped by its political system. As such, it is of import that organisations understand the nature of different political systems. Political system means system of authorities in a state. Political system can be assessed harmonizing to two related dimensions. The first the grade to which they emphasize Bolshevism as apposed to individuality. The 2nd dimension is the grade to which they are democratic or totalitarian. These dimensions are interrelated ; system that emphasize Bolshevism be given toward totalitarian, while system that place a high value on individuality tend to be democratic.Economic EnvironmentIn the economic environment, the organisational analysis should center on those facets of the economic system that straight impact the type of undertaking being considered. For illustration, rising prices, labour Torahs, and chance costs for research workers in public establishments straight impact organisational activities in different states. States with foreign currency limitations represent different environments for establishments than states without them, for such limitations have branchings for research, e.g. for equipment procurance and care.Social and Cultural EnvironmentsSocial and cultural forces at local, national, and frequently regional degrees have profound influence on the manner organisations conduct their work and on what they value in footings of results and effects. For illustration, the mores of an autochthonal civilization have a bearing on the work ethic and on the manner in which people relate to one another. Undoubtedly, the most profound cultural dimension is linguistic communication. The extent to which organisational members can take part in the discourse of the major scientific lin guistic communication will find the extent to which research attempts focus inside or lend to regional and planetary research dockets. Understanding the national/regional/local values toward larning and research provides insight into the type and nature of research that is valued. For illustration, what is the comparative precedence placed on contract research in partnership with local clients, e.g. proving merchandises and processs with autochthonal populations, as opposed to sharing information with academic equals internationally, or bring forthing biostatistician information that will determine national or regional policy. Arriving at these precedences involves culture-based determinations. Organizational architecture can be used by transnational endeavors to pull off and direct their planetary operations. To win, a house must fit its architecture to its scheme in different ways. Firms whose architecture does non suit their strategic demands will see public presentation jobs. It is besides necessary for the different constituents of architecture to be consistent with each other ( Hill, 2004 ) . Organizational architecture refers to the entirety of a house ‘s organisation, including formal organisational construction, control systems and inducements, procedures, organisational civilization, and people. An organisation should be able to analyse their internal environment including their capablenesss before they decide to travel planetary. It requires different know-how of the new geographical market and an organisation would necessitate to do necessary alterations in internal environment to come in the new geographical market successfully.hypertext transfer protocol : //www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopicwww.imf.orgwww.wto.orgwww.bbc.co.ukwww.Investorwords.com

Over the Rainbow Essay

What transforms a piece of information into evidence? when it comes from a reputable source when it is supported by a citation when it is used to support or refute something when it uses transitional words and phrases If a hard fact or visual representation of a fact is needed, which method of incorporating evidence would be most effective? summarizing providing data paraphrasing quoting If you would like to emphasize a particularly authoritative source, what method of incorporating evidence should you use? summarizing paraphrasing quoting providing data If you’d like to provide background information regarding a topic using a source, which method of incorporating evidence would be most effective? providing data paraphrasing quoting summarizing If you wanted to write a paper analyzing how John Milton uses language in the epic poem Paradise Lost, which method of incorporating evidence would be most effective? quoting paraphrasing summarizing providing data What do you need to do to avoid a floating quotation? rephrase each direct quotation in your own words give parenthetical citations for each direct quotation make sure each quotation is placed within a paragraph introduce and provide context for each quotation How do you summarize a passage? borrowing the exact words from the source restating a section of text from the source expressing the main ideas of the passage in your own words restating at least five facts in your own words When using a direct quotation, how do you signify that the words are not yours? quotation marks in-text citations parenthetical citations works cited page Which action should you never take when selecting quotations? choosing the fewest words needed  changing the meaning of the quotation by changing the context quoting long passages (block quotations) rarely  adjusting the sentence to fit the grammar of the quotation How do you paraphrase a passage? expressing, in your own words, the main ideas of the passage restating, in your own words, a section of text from the source borrowing the exact words from the source restating at least five facts in your own words How does the MLA style of citation work? brief in-text citations connected to a works cited page brief in-text citations connected to parenthetical citations a works cited page connected to a list of parenthetical citations at the end parenthetical citations connected to an alphabetical list of in-text citations at the beginning If you’d like to provide background information regarding a topic using a source, which method of incorporating evidence would be most effective? providing data paraphrasing quoting summarizing Which action should you never take when selecting quotations? choosing the fewest words needed changing the meaning of the quotation by changing the context quoting long passages (block quotations) rarely adjusting the sentence to fit the grammar of the quotation When using a direct quotation, how do you signify that the words are not yours? quotation marks in-text citations parenthetical citations works cited page How do you summarize a passage? borrowing the exact words from the source restating a section of text from the source expressing the main ideas of the passage in your own words restating at least five facts in your own words What is an example of a reference marker that a source might use? quotation print Web page numbering Which of the following is an example of plagiarism? using too many in-text citations using the Internet to conduct research failing to format properly the title of the works cited page failing to cite direct or indirect quotations In the MLA style, what are in-text citations called? parenthetical citations works cited entries brief sources antiplagiarism notes What do you need to do to avoid a floating quotation? rephrase each direct quotation in your own words give parenthetical citations for each direct quotation make sure each quotation is placed within a paragraph introduce and provide context for each quotation Which statement about the ellipsis is true? I. An ellipsis indicates the omission of a word or words. II. It is appropriate for an ellipsis to appear in any part of a sentence. III. A single space between the periods is necessary when using an ellipsis. I only II and III I and III I, II, and III Based on the passage above, which of the following reflects the correct use of the colon? At the beginning of his essay â€Å"The Insufficiency of Honesty,† Stephen L. Carter establishes a definition for integrity: â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong; acting on what you have discerned, even at personal cost; and saying openly that you are acting on your understanding of right and wrong.† At the beginning of his essay: â€Å"The Insufficiency of Honesty,† Stephen L. Carter establishes a definition for integrity, â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong; acting on what you have discerned, even at personal cost; and saying openly that you are acting on  your understanding of right and wrong.† At the beginning of his essay â€Å"The Insufficiency of Honesty†: Stephen L. Carter establishes a definition for integrity â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong; acting on what you have discerned, even at personal cost; and sayi ng openly that you are acting on your understanding of right and wrong.† At the beginning: of his essay â€Å"The Insufficiency of Honesty,† Stephen L. Carter establishes a definition for integrity, â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong; acting on what you have discerned, even at personal cost; and saying openly that you are acting on your understanding of right and wrong.† Based on the passage above, which of the following reflects the correct use of brackets? â€Å"[W]hen I refer to integrity, I have something very specific in mind,† states Carter in his essay. It is important to remember that â€Å"[w]hen [he] refer[s] to integrity, [Carter has] something very specific in mind.† â€Å"Referring to integrity† is something that is important to [Carter]. According to Carter, â€Å"he [has] something specific [integrity] in mind.† Which of the following reflects the proper punctuation of the above sentence? â€Å"Should states require adolescents to be eighteen before obtaining a driver’s license (Bipin)?† Should states â€Å"require adolescents to be eighteen before obtaining a driver’s license† (Bipin)? Should states, â€Å"require adolescents to be eighteen before obtaining a driver’s license?† Bipin. â€Å"Should states require adolescents to be eighteen before obtaining a driver’s license?† Bipin. Which statement about quotation marks is true? I. Quotation marks set apart short quotations. II. Typically, a direct quotation requires three quotation marks. III. Commas used to introduce short quotations appear outside the quotation marks. II only I and II II and III I and III Based on the passage above, which of the following reflects the correct use of quotation marks? â€Å"When I refer to integrity,† I have something specific in mind, states Carter. Carter states that the first criterion states that integrity requires a degree of â€Å"moral reflectiveness.† â€Å"acting on what you have discerned is one of the â€Å"three steps† of Carter’s definition of integrity.† According to Carter, integrity â€Å"includes keeping one’s commitments.† Based on the passage above, which of the following reflects the correct use of parentheses? In his definition of integrity, (Carter) states that â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong . . . captures the idea that integrity requires a degree of moral reflectiveness.† The essay begins with the claim that â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong . . . captures the idea that integrity requires a degree of moral reflectiveness.† (Carter) Regarding integrity, â€Å"discerning what is right and what is wrong . . . captures the idea that integrity requires a degree of moral reflectiveness† (Carter). (Carter) writes, â€Å"[D]iscerning what is right and what is wrong . . . captures the idea that integrity requires a degree of moral reflectiveness.† Which of the following reflects the proper punctuation of the above sentence? â€Å"Why do parents underestimate the significance of writing in one’s journal Hartwig asks?† â€Å"Why do parents underestimate the significance of writing in one’s journal,† Hartwig asks? â€Å"Why do parents underestimate the significance of writing in one’s journal?† Hartwig asks. â€Å"Why do parents underestimate the significance of writing in one’s journal? Hartwig asks†. Which of the following reflects the proper punctuation of the above sentence? Reading from a book each night before bed, â€Å"according to Jang,† encourages the brain to remember the text. â€Å"Reading from a book each night before bed,† according to Jang, â€Å"encourages the brain to remember the text.† . . . [R]eading from a book each night before bed according to Jang encourages the brain to remember the text? â€Å"Reading from a book each night before bed (according to Jang) encourages the brain to remember the text†. Which statement about parentheses is true? I. Parentheses often appear at the end of the sentence. II. Citations for a direct quotation need to be set apart by parentheses. III. Periods always come after the parentheses. I only I and II II and III I, II, and III Based on the passage above, which of the following reflects the correct use of brackets? â€Å"[W]hen I refer to integrity, I have something very specific in mind,† states Carter in his essay. It is important to remember that â€Å"[w]hen [he] refer[s] to integrity, [Carter has] something very specific in mind.† â€Å"Referring to integrity† is something that is important to [Carter]. According to Carter, â€Å"he [has] something specific [integrity] in mind.† Which statement about the ellipsis is true? I. An ellipsis indicates the omission of a word or words. II. It is appropriate for an ellipsis to appear in any part of a sentence. III. A single space between the periods is necessary when using an ellipsis. I only II and III I and III I, II, and III Which statement about parentheses is true? I. Parentheses often appear at the end of the sentence. II. Citations for a direct quotation need to be set apart by parentheses. III. Periods always come after the parentheses. I only I and II II and III I, II, and III